HISTORY OF POLAND
God comes to Poland
1000 years of Polish history commenced when a political move
brought Poland into being. In 965, an ambitious and insightful
Slavic leader Mieszko 1 smarried a Bohemian princess and
converted to Christianity in order to counter the growing
strength of his German neighbors to the west.
Mieszko I -the first king of Poland.
By inviting the Holy Roman Empire into the region the following year,Mieszko established
the Piast dynasty and ensured a separate identity for the lands that soon came to be known as
Poland. That diplomatic gain brought political and economic ones as well: Poles mimicked the Church administration, and quickly put to use the new ideas and technology that now flowed in from the west. With one baptizing stroke, Poland took a position which it would hold for
centuries: as a buffer zone between the West and the East, its fortunes would rise and fall in a manner unique in European history.
Individuality to a fault
Following its befitting beginning with the blessing of
Christianity, Poland soon exhibited another national trait: the
individual is king. In 1138, Poland was parceled out among
several Piast sons, fragmenting it geographically and politically.
As could be expected, the brothers began to fight among
themselves, leaving Poland incapable of fighting off outsiders.
The state grew weaker and weaker over the next 200 years,
losing the Pomeranian region to the north and yielding to the
more subtle threat of a germanized Silesia.
To counter these losses, Poland invited the Teutonic Knights in
to protect its eastern and northern flank. The Knights accepted,
set up shop throughout the north, and eventually grew into a
threat of their own. In 1308, they took Gdansk, renamed it
Danzig, and built it into a thriving trade center. By settling
Germans in the area, the Teutonic Order precipitated a
tug-of-war over the region which lasted until 1945. Cut off from
the sea, fragmented, growing weaker
each year, it was not until the early part
of the 14th century that the tide turned
when Wladyslaw I and his son
Kazimierz III reunified and reformed
Poland.
Kazimierz III The Great
Kazimierz III in particular altered Poland,
from the ground up. He codified the
laws, he
reformed the
administration, he organized provincial
governments, he established
Jagiellonian University - one of the first
in Europe, and he welcomed the
pogrom-plagued Jews from the west. As
the old saying goes, Kazimierz "received
Poland of wood and left it of stone".
Poland for everyone
Yet his heir, a nephew from Hungary, did not last long. Louis I
was quickly tossed over for his 10 year old daughter Jadwiga
who was then wedded to the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Ladislaus
Jagiello. Like all royal marriages, the personal union solidified a
political one: the Poland-Lithuania alliance of 1386 created a
multinational state that would thrive for some time to come.
Although Jadwiga died in her early 20's, Jagiello went on to rule
Poland for the next 4 decades and his dynasty lasted until 1572.
Under his
dynasty, Poland
progressed
militarily,
culturally, and
politically. Its
military strength
grew sufficient
to decisively
defeat the Teutonic Knights at Grunwald in 1410 - the largest
medieval battle in history - weakening their hold over the north
and allowing Poland to regain limited power over Danzig.
Grunwald in 1410 - the largest medieval battle in history
But as
that now familiar threat receded, a second developed to the East
as Poland became increasingly engaged with the up-and-coming
Muscovite czars. The balancing act between the East and the
West had begun in earnest, and was to continue until the
present day.
Culturally, Poland welcomed the
Renaissance as did the rest of
Europe, and its strong ties with Italy
left their mark. Even today,
Italianate architecture survives in
Poland, the reminders of a time
passed when Polish nobles learned
in Italian universities, and Italian
artisans thrived in Polish cities like
Zamosc. At that time, a quarter of
the population could read and write, a literacy rate which was
unmatched in the rest of Europe. Enhancing these intellectual
advances, the Reformation left Poland more religiously tolerant
than ever. Its already growing number of non-Catholics swelled,
making it one of the most diversely populated countries of that
time. Politically, Poland also marched ahead. Again giving voice
to its faith in the individual, it
enfranchised the nobility and
established the first
representative body in Europe.
The Sejm of 1493 was further
strengthened in 1505 with a
constitutionally organized two
house system and its power
grew sufficient to take the reins
when the last Jagiellonian king died without an heir in 1572.
Democracy of a sort
Left without an obvious next head of state, Poland took it upon
itself to elect one. Thus began the First Republic of Poland
which survived until the final partition of 1795. An apparent
advance on one level, the Sejm cost Poland on others. In theory,
the enfranchised nobility represented 10% of Poland's
population, but in practice, a powerful few controlled them all.
Those few solidified their power by weakening the king's,
leaving the strength of the elected position dependent upon the
individual that held it. If they didn't want a strong king, they
didn't elect one.
The Republic also ensured that
the feudal state survived, and it
kept capitalism captive in the
mostly German and Jewish
dominated cities. Self-interested
nobles failed to raise the taxes
to support a standing army, and
the advances achieved under
the Jagiellonian dynasty quickly crumbled away. In the mid-17th
century, Poland was invaded and pillaged by Sweden. The
resulting war devastated the country and the people.
But for a brief time afterwards, Poland re-emerged under the
reign of Jan III Sobieski, most noted for his decisive role in the
Battle of Vienna.
Jan III Sobieski
In 1683, the Ottoman Empire had advanced
northward, eventually laying siege to Vienna. Considered
unbeatable at the time, a Christian Europe was given up for lost
until Sobieski showed on the scene.
Saving the Austrian Empire cost
Sobieski on another front; the
Prussians took advantage of the
battle-wearied Poland, which barely
resisted.
Also under the First Republic, Sejm
members began to misuse one of their
most serious privileges: the right of
veto. Assuming that an elected body
acted according to the wishes of the people, all decisions were
to be unanimous. This meant that any member could veto an act
of the Sejm, voiding it for good. The first time such a veto was
used, in 1652, the dissenting deputy left and the session ended
without final approval of any legislation. An idea with the best
of intentions in practice led to the downfall and eventual loss of
the country itself. With Sejm business at the mercy of any
self-interested member, the resulting fragmented power base left
an opening for the land-hungry empires of Prussia-Germany,
Austria-Hungary, and Russia.
Each in their own time
began to chip away at
the unity of Poland,
buying a vote here and
there, and eventually
bought enough to bring
governance to a
standstill. By the time
Poles woke up, it was a
bit too late. The first partition of Poland took place in 1772 when
Russia realized it would be easier to cede land to Austria and
Prussia than fight for it. The shock did Poland some good, and
in the next twenty years a mini-Renaissance briefly revived the
country and culminated in the first Constitution in Europe in
1791.
Declaration of the Constitution in 1791
But the neighboring powers were not satisfied with their initial
land grabs, so in 1793 and 1795 they finished what they started
and Poland as a political and geographic entity ceased to exist.
It was not to emerge again until the end of World War I.
Erased, but not forgotten
Disappearing from the map of Europe for over a hundred years
forced Poles to rethink the basis of their identity. Each of the
three powers ruled their ill-gotten lands differently, but in
attempting to achieve the same end -- eradicate Polish culture --
they ensured failure because what was once a state now became
a people.
Initially, Poles tried to
physically regain their
sovereignty - one uprising of
in 1793 was led by Tadeusz
Kosciuszko who also fought
for American independence.
Tadeusz Kosciuszko
But the many uprisings failed,
and the one bright spark lit by Napoleon went out with his own
flame.
Eventually, Poles yielded on the surface, and
while many emigrated, others dug in and began
channeling their frustrated desires into a new
area of expression: the arts. During the
Partitions, some of Poland's greatest literature
gave masked voice to their barely-hidden
longings, wrapping up dangerous political
wishes in subtle symbolism. Adam Mickiewicz's work became
legendary while Henryk Sienkiewicz's Quo Vadis sparked
imaginations everywhere.
Independent at last: the Second Republic
Poland landed back on the map of Europe when
the three empires destroyed one another in
World War I. Following the war, its borders
shifted somewhat over the next few years, but
one early decision proved fatal 20 years later.
Given the strongly German population of Danzig
and the surrounding Pomeranian region, the
Treaty of Versailles established Danzig as a 'free city' and east
Pomerania as German. But Poland required access to the sea,
and was granted it as a thin sliver which isolated these German
lands from the Fatherland. Reclaiming them in 1939, Hitler
ignited World War Two.
But in the interim, Poland forged
full-steam ahead to make up for lost
time. With a great deal of energy and
desire, Poland went about rebuilding
its industries and its military. Headed
by Jozef Pilsduski, its army
successfully repelled the
ever-ambitious Soviet Union in 1920
and at the same time expanded its
borders eastward to encompass parts
of Lithuania and Ukraine.
Jozef Pilsduski
Yet the
considerable advances were not
enough. Poland resisted but could not repel the dual-pronged
invasion of Germany and the Soviet Union in 1939. Once again,
it fell prey to the ambitions of its powerful neighbors at a cost
higher than any paid previously.
The War
Skipping over the obvious,
some lesser known facts
about Poland's role during
World War II may prove
illuminating. First, it
supported a resistance
movement larger than any
other in Europe. Sensitized
by the Partitions, Poles
possibly felt they were fighting for their country in a way no
other European could appreciate. Second, the worst of the
camps existed and the greatest number of victims were claimed
here. This horrific distinction rests on the simple fact that
Poland's long history of religious and cultural tolerance resulted
in the largest Jewish population in Europe. In contrast to
received opinion, Poles did aid and abet their neighbors and
friends, to the degree that such aid was punishable by death.
That distinction was also unique to Poland.
Third, the Soviet Union
skillfully played its
expansionist card throughout
the war. With a mind to move
westward, the Russians
rounded up Poles and carted
them off to the east, or simply
shot the more promising types -
4,231 Polish officers - at the
Katyn massacre in 1940. On the
political front, Stalin established a pseudo-Polish communist
party which later served as the backbone for the emergent
Polish Worker's Party. Yet the most troublesome of his antics
took place near the end of the war. In 1944, Soviet soldiers sat
by while the cream of the Polish military exhausted itself against
the Nazis for the better part of three months in the Warsaw
Uprising.
Monument in memory to soldiers of Warsaw Uprising
Defeated, Poles helplessly watched as the now
retreating German army systematically destroyed 85% of
Warsaw over the next two months. Having been camped across
the river for the better part of 6 months, the Soviet army finally
crossed it to enter Warsaw in January of 1945. The brutal
self-interest behind such a decision is still difficult to accept.
Last, Poland lost more than any
other country involved in the
War: 25% of its population, its
capital in ruins, its previously
diverse population now almost
100% Polish, and its political
future determined without so
much as one free vote.
Occupied again: The People's Republic
Communism came to Poland, but was
never invited. Stalin's pseudo-Polish
'Union of Polish Patriots', headed by
Boleslaw Bierut, grabbed power as the
retreating Nazis relinquished it. Teaming
up with the domestic product, the 'Polish
Worker's Party' was formed and headed
by Wladyslaw Gomulka. To signal a new
era, the communist rulers removed the
crown from the Polish eagle. In 1947, a
faked election let the world know that
Poland 'chose' communism, and in 1948
the ruling 'Polish United Worker's Party' (PZPR) was
established. Regardless of name, the game was the same. The
Soviet Union was
determined to maintain its
expanded sphere of
influence as the Cold
War commenced, and it
did so by hook and crook
for the next 40 years.
Unlike the Soviet Union proper, Poland did experience some
internal independence. For instance, deposed leaders were not
assassinated, purges stopped short of outright genocide, and
suppression only went so deep. Most importantly, the Church
survived and even flourished as a counterpoint to Soviet
repression. Things weren't all bad: Poland did manage to rebuild
its war-devastated iron, steel, shipping, and mining industries.
But it never regained a decent standard of living and it was that
failure, primarily in the form of sky-rocketing food prices, which
eventually toppled Soviet rule.
The first sign of discontent surfaced in 1956
when Khrushchev opened the door himself
by admitting Stalin's crimes in February of
that year. By June, strikes broke out in
Poznan, and in October a reform-promising
Gomulka was elected without the stamp of
Moscow approval. This unheard of defiance
elicited a visit from Khrushchev coupled
with several armies massing at the Polish
border, but Gomulka effectively deflected
the threat. The openness and reforms which
followed lasted about as long as any decent
cynic would expect, and quickly enough, everything went back
to normal. After another decade of this, high food prices again
sparked unrest in Gdansk in 1970 but this time around the
solution proved more dangerous.
Earlier that year, the chancellor of West
Germany, Willy Brandt, visited Poland
and opened the east to the west for the
first time since the war. Grabbing the
opportunity, Party Secretary Gierek
began borrowing money, and he
borrowed Poland into debt, leaving it far
worse off than before. When the food
prices announced several years later
proved far higher than those which
sparked the borrowing in the first place,
Gierek was ready.
By suppressing all resistance, the government ensured the birth
of the eventually fatal union between the workers, the
intellectuals, and the Church. Historically, once the students
and the workers get together with the clergy, serious
counter-trouble starts.
And did, in the early 1980's. Unrelated, yet so connected, was
the election of the Polish-born Pope John Paul II in 1979.
Pope John Paul II
Spiritually supported, Poles became bolder. Another price rise
sparked yet another strike in Gdansk, and continuing unrest
paved the way for some cooperation. The Gdansk shipbuilders
wrote out their demands - the 21 Points - and the government
agreed to them in August of 1980. With that, the Solidarity
Trade Union was born.
Unfortunately, Poland's neighbors didn't
take kindly to this development, started
complaining to the Kremlin, and the
countermeasures began. They ended
with martial law in December of 1981:
Solidarity was banned, its leaders jailed,
and life went back to normal.
Martial Law Gdansk, 1981
But not for
good: the underlying discontent with life
under Soviet hegemony resurfaced
again and again, until strikes in 1988
forced the government to negotiate. The
Round Table Talks followed in 1989 and
soon thereafter the first noncommunist
government in Central Europe since WWII was installed.
***
Over 1000 years of Polish history with its bright and dark sides may give a lesson to any nation in any part
of the world: Welfare of a society depends heavily on high moral qualities of most citizens. Neither
democracy3 nor bureoucracy, nor police nor military force can replace them. One cannot put a policeman
at the side of everyone to keep law and order (Who would then supervise the police?). Police and secret
services can only control a marginal part of the society. But, in order to raise a moral society, the state (and
its law) must conform to modest norms of morality because otherwise breaking the law would be generally
accepted by the society and the law would miss its purpose even at those points where it is advantageous
for the society.